Key features of traditional and contemporary theories of child development and play

Nodweddion allweddol damcaniaethau traddodiadol a chyfoes mewn perthynas â datblygiad a chwarae plant

Name Theory Type of theory
Chomsky

Chomsky is a key theorist on language acquisition and suggested that a child does not learn a language, but creates a brand new language. He suggests that language is intrinsic and that we are born with a series of rules in our head regarding language. He refers to this as universal grammar. Universal grammar is the basis on which all human languages are built. Some children will easily learn two languages or more during the early stages of their lives.

Cognitive
Maslow

People are motivated by the 5 needs (7 at a later stage) which are contained within the hierarchy. Basic needs must be met such as food, water, sleep and health before higher needs can be considered. Examples of higher needs include self-respect, social interaction, confidence and morality. These needs can change from level to level, from hour to hour or from one day to the next. The likely motivation before a meal would be physiological needs, but intellectual motivation could happen later, possibly with the need to study.

Hierarchy of needs
Humanistic
Rogers

The tendency for self-actualization influences human behaviour. In order to realise this potential and ensure good mental health, a person requires a high level of self-respect. A child who has experienced an unconditional positive attitude will have a real self (I do) and an ideal self (I should) that are similar, and a high level of self-respect. They will be confident, open and trusting. A child who has only experienced a conditional positive attitude e.g. love and affection when 'behaving' in a certain way, will also develop a real self and an ideal self but there may be a bigger difference between the two selves. This will cause a low level of self-respect, a lack of confidence, anxiety and sadness, and the child could behave in an inappropriate manner. A child who has only experienced negative attitudes, criticism and blame will also develop a low level of self-respect, which will lead to mental illness and problems in the future. When facing a worrying or intimidating situation, people will use defences such as denial (e.g. not opening an envelope that contains bad news) or perceptional gestures (e.g. blaming the teacher for poor results).

Humanistic
Bandura

Albert Bandura believed that children learnt from their environment through imitation. This is called learning through observing. If a child sees an adult always speaking politely to other people, they will tend to imitate that behaviour. If a child sees another person, the model, receiving reward or praise for a specific type of behaviour, such as being polite, they will be more likely to try to imitate this. People will then form an opinion with regard to how to behave in other similar circumstances. Some people will be more important to the child than others and therefore more likely to be imitated, including an older brother or sister or parent, a fellow pupil, or even actors, singers or celebrities. People are more likely to imitate models of the same sex than of the opposite sex. Boys will imitate their father's male role or another male figure who they admire and girls will imitate their mother's female role or another female figure that they can relate to. If the model has great social status, power or ability, they are more likely to be imitated, for example, pop stars and other celebrities or actors in soap operas. Bandura believed that children imitate 'good' and 'bad' behaviour. In his well-known experiment using a Bobo doll, children who observed an adult behaving aggressively towards the plastic doll imitated the aggressive behaviour.

See:

https://bit.ly/2O5njuL

Social learning
Bowlby

Bowlby's theory on attachment emphasises the key part that the main care giver such as the mother, plays in the emotional development of the child. He believed that children experience one special attachment, that the attachment is innate and that children are pre-programmed to attach to the mother in order to exist. He believed that attachment needs to happen within a time referred to as the 'critical period', namely within the first two years of their life. Bowlby stated that what happens during the early months and years of life can have deep and long-lasting effects if the bond of affection between the child and its mother is broken by separation, this can cause psychological damage thus leading to offending or emotional difficulties.

Social learning
Ainsworth

Mary Ainsworth developed a theory on the different types of attachment. According to Ainsworth, the mother's behaviour towards the child influences the type of attachment that the child experiences. Mothers who respond to the needs of their children help them to create a positive attachment. According to Ainsworth, a child will belong to one of the following types of attachment, and will display the following behaviours:

  • Secure attachment - explores whilst the mother is in the room; becomes distressed when they are separated; is happy when she returns; looks for physical comfort when the mother returns.
  • Insecure-avoidant - ignores the mother when present; very little concern when they are separated; turns away from the mother when the mother returns.
  • Insecure-ambivalent - very little exploration whilst the mother is in the room, but stays close to her; becomes upset when they are separated; is ambivalent and refuses contact when the mother returns.
Social learning
Rutter

Resilience is the ability to 'bounce back' or deal with stress. The theory of resilience discusses the effect of challenging events on individuals and families and how they have adapted to that traumatic experience. Experiencing harmful events, such as the loss of a family member or homelessness, can place significant strain on mental health, and may cause some to fold under pressure. But not everybody will fold under pressure and some individuals will recover relatively well. Some will use their trauma to encourage them to live a more satisfactory life than they lived before their traumatic experience. This is what makes them resilient.

Much of Michael Rutter's work is based on his research into children whose parents have schizophrenia. He states that resilience is more than social competency or positive mental health; competency must include an element of risk in order to be resilient. Rutter assumed that children can be resilient in relation to some risks, but not others. Therefore different risks and environmental changes can lead to a child showing resilience or a lack of resilience at different times. It is unlikely that any individual will be resilient in every situation throughout their life. For example, a child may show resilience during the divorce of their parents, but not following academic failure. He believed that there was a correlation between the amount of stress in a child's life and the likelihood that they would become an offender. There is a correlation between antisocial behaviour and factors within the home, such as conflict between parents.

Theories of resilience
Piaget

Piaget believed that intelligence is established at birth and that children make an active attempt to understand the world around them. He believed that children learnt best by discovering things for themselves, learning through experience and developing what he referred to as 'schemas' to make sense of the world around them. Piaget believed that children moved through four stages of cognitive development:

  • The sensory-motor stage: 0-2 years - children learn by using their senses and think without language. Children do not have a sense of the stability of objects.
  • The pre-operational stage: 2-7 years - pre-logical thinking using language. Words and symbols are used to help the child make sense of the environment.
  • The concrete operational stage: 7-11 years - thinking logically during practical situations.
  • The formal operational stage: 11+ years – thinking as an adult and thinking in an abstract and theoretical manner.
Constructivist Cognitive
Vygotsky

Vygotsky suggested that interactions with others have a strong influence on the child's understanding of the world and that the quality of parents communication has a strong influence on the child's linguistic development. He believed that adults play a key part in helping children to develop and challenge themselves. As well as looking at the child's current stage of development, he looked at what the child could do during the next stage. He referred to this as the 'zone of proximal development' or the 'proximal development layer'. It refers to the difference between what a child can accomplish independently and what the child can accomplish with guidance and encouragement from a skilled teacher. Much of a child's cognitive development is achieved through social interaction with a more knowledgeable person. There is a 'proximal development layer' even when playing, as the child behaves on a higher level than their usual daily behaviour, for example, by imagining they are an adult whilst playing in the Wendy house.

Constructivist Cognitive
Bruner

Bruner suggested that children needed to take an active part in their learning. He believed that the role of the adult was important and that interactions play a key part in promoting language. According to Bruner, parents need to read to their children in order to help to develop grammar, communication and literacy skills. Using language formats such as repeating language and reading books helps children to learn how to use language. In other words, they learn to understand that language has an order and that it is associated with interactions.

Constructivist Cognitive
Pavlov

Pavlov's classical conditioning theory looks at how children can be conditioned to behave in a certain way and can learn behaviour. Children learn how to connect different behaviours with different responses. If a child gets attention for an action or for speaking in a certain way, and that the response is pleasant, they are likely to repeat the behaviour. If the response is negative, they are unlikely to repeat the behaviour. For example, a child may know that crying draws the attention of their parents, and will therefore repeat the action.

Behavioural
Skinner

Skinner suggested that behaviour can be reinforced and that children can learn as a result of their actions. He referred to this as 'operant conditioning'. The reinforcement may be positive leading to a pleasant outcome from something such as praise, but, the reinforcement may also be negative leading to an unpleasant outcome from something such as punishment. Children can be rewarded or praised for saying their first word, so may repeat that or older children could be punished for swearing and therefore would be less likely to do so again.

Behavioural
Watson

Watson believed that children have three basic emotional reactions:

  • fear
  • rage
  • love.

He suggested that new emotional reactions could be conditioned and that these would develop over time. He also emphasised the importance of learning and environmental influences within human development.

Behavioural
Groos

Karl Groos believed that play allows children to practice the roles of adults and to develop the skills required to survive in later life. When animals 'play', they practice basic instincts, such as fighting, in order to survive.

Play
Klein

Following research, Melanie Klein developed a play technique as a form of therapy. Klein used a simple play room, with a collection of toys and role play equipment, which gave children freedom to use their imagination and express their feelings. Simple, understandable language was used when interacting with the children and they were given opportunities to take on the role of the adult when playing, while the adult played the role of the child. Klein realised that play was a way of connecting and communicating with children in a way that was not possible orally. This is what makes play therapy so effective with children, especially children with communication difficulties or who have experienced extreme trauma that they would be unable to express with a limited vocabulary.

Play
Freud

Sigmund Freud believed that children play in order to master negative emotions such as rage or worry. He believed that play offers children opportunities to deal with traumatic experiences and events by providing safe ways for children to express their feelings. Play helps children to control their feelings and to deal with situations that cause stress or trauma.

Play
Froebel

Friedrich Froebel was a play theorist who believed that every child is born good and that adults should provide the appropriate activities and environment for them to develop. Friedrich Froebel believed that children learn best through imaginary play. He was also very well known for promoting 'block play' (which he would call gifts) in order to promote children's understanding of mathematical concepts through play.

Play
Steiner

Rudolph Steiner believed that life should be considered as a journey rather than a race, and that it is therefore important for children to be children first of all, thus being more likely to develop to be balanced and sensible adults. Steiner believes that play is the serious work of childhood. He also believed that childhood had three parts, namely the 'hand, the 'heart' and the 'head'.

Play
Montessori

Maria Montessori was an Italian doctor who worked with poor children in Rome in the 1900s. Her theory about play was different to Froebel's theory, as she did not believe that imaginative play was important.

Montessori believed that play needed to be more structured and challenging, that children need to do more than imagine, that they need to do real things such as cooking or gardening using real equipment. She believed that children needed child-sized equipment, materials and furniture. She designed and produced her own equipment that allowed children to explore concepts such as shape, weight, colour and number and encouraged them to do so. Like Froebel, Montessori believed that children learn by doing and that outdoor play was just as important as indoor play, that play reflected life, and that children are active learners.

Play

Information taken and adapted from the Hwb website:

https://hwb.gov.wales

Enw Damcaniaeth Math o ddamcaniaeth
Chomsky

Mae Chomsky yn ddamcaniaethwr allweddol ar gaffael iaith ac awgrymodd nad yw plentyn yn dysgu iaith, ond yn ei chreu o’r newydd. Mae’n awgrymu bod iaith yn gynhenid a’n bod yn cael ein geni gyda chyfres o reolau ynghylch iaith yn ein pennau. Cyfeiriai at hyn fel y ‘gramadeg cynhenid’ (universal grammar). Y gramadeg cynhenid yw’r sail y mae’r holl ieithoedd dynol wedi’u hadeiladu arno. Gall rhai plant ddysgu dwy iaith neu fwy yn hawdd yn gynnar yn eu bywyd.

Gwybyddol
Maslow

Caiff pobl eu cymell gan 5 angen (7 yn ddiweddarach) sydd mewn hierarchaeth. Rhaid bodloni anghenion sylfaenol megis bwyd, dŵr, cwsg ac iechyd cyn ystyried anghenion uwch. Enghreifftiau o anghenion uwch yw hunan-barch, rhyngweithio cymdeithasol, hyder a moesoldeb. Gellir symud o lefel i lefel, o awr i awr neu o un diwrnod i’r llall. Anghenion ffisiolegol fyddai’r cymhelliant tebygol cyn pryd o fwyd ond gallai cymhellion deallusol ddigwydd yn ddiweddarach gyda’r angen i astudio efallai.

Hierarchy of needs
Dyneiddiol
Rogers

Mae’r duedd i hunan sylweddoli yn dylanwadu ar ymddygiad dynol. Er mwyn gwireddu’r potensial hwn a bod yn iach yn y meddwl, mae angen lefel uchel o hunan-barch ar berson. Bydd plentyn sydd wedi profi agwedd gadarnhaol ddiamod yn meddu ar hunan real (rwyf) a hunan delfrydol (dylwn fod) sy’n debyg gan feddu ar lefel uchel o hunan-barch. Bydd yn hyderus, yn agored ac yn ymddiriedus. Bydd plentyn sydd ond wedi profi agwedd gadarnhaol amodol e.e. cariad ac anwyldeb wrth ‘ymddwyn’ mewn ffordd benodol, hefyd yn datblygu hunan real a hunan delfrydol ond efallai gyda mwy o fwlch rhyngddynt. Bydd hyn yn achosi lefel isel o hunan-barch, diffyg hyder, gorbryder ac anhapusrwydd, a gallai ymddwyn yn amhriodol. Bydd plentyn sydd ond wedi profi agwedd negyddol, beirniadaeth a bai hefyd yn datblygu lefel isel o hunan-barch, a fydd yn arwain at afiechyd meddwl a phroblemau yn y dyfodol. Wrth wynebu sefyllfa bryderus neu fygythiol, bydd pobl yn defnyddio amddiffyniadau megis gwadu (e.e. peidio ag agor amlen sy’n cynnwys newyddion drwg) neu ystumio canfyddiadol (e.e. rhoi’r bai ar yr athro/athrawes am ganlyniadau gwael).

Dyneiddiol
Bandura

Credai Albert Bandura fod plant yn dysgu o’u hamgylchedd drwy ddynwared. Yr enw ar hyn yw dysgu drwy arsylwi. Os bydd plentyn yn gweld oedolyn yn sgwrsio’n gwrtais â phobl eraill bob amser, bydd yn tueddu i ddynwared yr ymddygiad hwnnw. Os bydd plentyn yn gweld person arall, y model, yn cael gwobr neu ganmoliaeth am fath penodol o ymddygiad, megis bod yn gwrtais, bydd yn fwy tebygol o geisio ei ddynwared. Bydd pobl wedyn yn ffurfio barn ynghylch sut i ymddwyn mewn sefyllfaoedd tebyg eraill. Bydd rhai pobl yn fwy pwysig i’r plentyn nag eraill ac felly’n fwy tebygol o gael eu dynwared, gan gynnwys brawd neu chwaer hŷn neu riant, cyd-ddisgybl, neu hyd yn oed actorion, cantorion neu enwogion. Mae pobl yn fwy tebygol o ddynwared modelau o’r un rhyw â nhw na rhai o’r rhyw arall. Bydd bechgyn yn dynwared rôl wrywaidd eu tad neu ffigwr gwrywaidd arall maen nhw’n ei edmygu a bydd merched yn dynwared rôl fenywaidd eu mam neu fodel benywaidd arall maen nhw’n uniaethu â hi. Os yw’r model yn meddu statws cymdeithasol, pŵer, neu allu mawr, mae’n fwy tebygol o gael ei dynwared, er enghraifft, sêr canu pop ac enwogion eraill neu actorion mewn operâu sebon. Credai Bandura fod plant yn dynwared ymddygiad ‘da’ a ‘drwg’. Yn ei arbrawf enwog wrth ddefnyddio dol Bobo, roedd plant a oedd wedi arsylwi oedolyn yn ymddwyn yn ymosodol tuag at ddol blastig yn dynwared yr ymddygiad ymosodol.

Gweler:

https://bit.ly/2O5njuL

Dysgu cymdeithasol
Bowlby

Mae damcaniaeth Bowlby ar ymlyniad yn amlygu’r rhan allweddol mae’r prif roddwr gofal megis y fam, yn ei chwarae yn natblygiad emosiynol plentyn. Credai fod plant yn cael un ymlyniad arbennig, mae’r ymlyniad hwnnw’n gynhenid ac mae plant wedi’u cyn-raglennu i ymlynu wrth y fam er mwyn bodoli. Credai fod angen i ymlyniad ddigwydd yn ystod yr hyn y galwai’r ‘cyfnod critigol’, sef yn ystod dwy flynedd gyntaf eu bywyd. Meddai Bowlby, ‘Gall yr hyn sy’n digwydd yn y misoedd a’r blynyddoedd cynharaf mewn bywyd gael effeithiau dwfn a hirbarhaol’. Os caiff y cwlwm agosrwydd rhwng y plentyn a’r fam ei dorri drwy wahaniad, gall hyn achosi niwed seicolegol gan arwain at droseddu neu anawsterau emosiynol.

Dysgu cymdeithasol
Ainsworth

Datblygodd Mary Ainsworth ddamcaniaeth am wahanol fathau o ymlyniad. Yn ôl Ainsworth, mae ymddygiad y fam tuag at y plentyn yn dylanwadu ar y math o ymlyniad a gaiff y plentyn. Mae mamau sy’n ymateb i anghenion eu plant yn eu helpu i greu ymlyniad cadarnhaol. Yn ôl Ainsworth, bydd plentyn yn perthyn i un o'r mathau o ymlyniad canlynol a bydd yn dangos yr ymddygiadau canlynol:

  • Wedi ymlynu gyda sicrwydd - yn archwilio gyda'r fam yn yr ystafell; yn cynhyrfu pan gânt eu gwahanu; yn hapus pan ddaw nôl; yn chwilio am gysur corfforol pan ddaw'r fam nôl.
  • Osgöwr ansicr - yn anwybyddu'r fam pan yn bresennol; ychydig iawn o ofid pan gânt eu gwahanu; troi oddi wrth y fam pan ddaw'r fam nôl.
  • Gwrthsafwr ansicr - ychydig iawn o archwilio gyda'r fam yn yr ystafell, ond aros yn agos ati; yn ofidus pan gânt eu gwahanu; yn amwys ac yn gwrthod cyswllt pan ddaw'r fam nôl.
Dysgu cymdeithasol
Rutter

Gwydnwch yw'r gallu i ‘bownsio yn ôl’ neu ddelio â straen. Mae damcaniaeth gwydnwch yn trafod effaith digwyddiadau heriol ar unigolion a theuluoedd a sut y maent wedi addasu i'r profiad trawmatig hwnnw. Gall profi digwyddiadau niweidiol fel colli aelod o’r teulu neu ddigartrefedd, roi straen sylweddol ar iechyd meddwl gan achosi i rai blygu dan bwysau. Ond ni fydd pawb yn plygu dan bwysau a gall rhai unigolion adfer eu hunain yn gymharol dda. Bydd rhai yn defnyddio eu trawma i'w sbarduno i fywyd mwy boddhaol nag oedd ganddynt cyn eu profiad trawmatig. Dyma sy'n eu gwneud yn wydn.

Mae llawer o waith Michael Rutter yn seiliedig ar ei ymchwil o blant â rhieni gyda sgitsoffrenia. Dywed fod gwydnwch yn fwy na chymhwysedd cymdeithasol neu iechyd meddwl cadarnhaol; rhaid i gymhwysedd fod ag elfen o risg i fod yn wydnwch. Tybiodd Rutter gall plant fod yn wydn mewn perthynas â rhai risgiau, ond nid eraill. Felly gall gwahanol risgiau a newidiadau amgylcheddol arwain at blentyn yn dangos gwydnwch neu ddiffyg gwydnwch ar adegau gwahanol. Mae'n annhebygol y bydd unrhyw unigolyn yn wydn ym mhob sefyllfa yn ystod ei bywyd. Er enghraifft, gall blentyn ddangos gwydnwch yn ystod ysgariad ei rieni ond nid pan fyddant yn methu’n academaidd. Credai fod cydberthyniad rhwng maint y straen ym mywyd y plentyn a’r tebygolrwydd o droi’n dramgwyddwr. Mae cydberthyniad rhwng ymddygiad gwrthgymdeithasol a ffactorau yn y cartref fel gwrthdaro rhwng rhieni.

Damcaniaethau gwydnwch
Piaget

Credai Piaget for deallusrwydd yn cael ei sefydlogi ar enedigaeth a bod plant yn ymdrechu’n weithredol i ddeall y byd maen nhw’n byw ynddo. Credai bod plant yn dysgu orau wrth ddarganfod pethau drostyn nhw eu hunain, ‘dysgu trwy brofiad’ ac yn datblygu’r hyn a alwai’n ‘sgemâu’ i wneud synnwyr o’r byd o’u cwmpas. Credai Piaget bod plant yn symud drwy bedwar cyfnod mewn datblygiad gwybyddol:

  • Y cyfnod synhwyraidd-weithredol: 0-2 flwydd oed - mae plant yn dysgu drwy ddefnyddio’r synhwyrau ac mae meddwl yn digwydd heb iaith. Nid oes gan blant syniad o sefydlogrwydd gwrthrych.
  • Y cyfnod cynweithredol: 2-7 mlwydd oed - meddwl cynresymegol gydag iaith. Defnyddir geiriau a symbolau i helpu plentyn i wneud synnwyr o’r amgylchedd.
  • Y cyfnod gweithredol diriaethol: 7-11 mlwydd oed - meddwl yn rhesymegol yn ystod sefyllfaoedd ymarferol.
  • Gweithrediadu ffurfiol: 11+ mlwydd oed – meddwl fel oedolion a meddwl yn haniaethol (abstract) a damcaniaethol.
Lluniadaethol Gwybyddol
Vygotsky

Awgrymodd Vygotsky bod rhyngweithiadau gydag eraill yn dylanwadu’n gryf ar ddealltwriaeth y plentyn o’r byd ac y bydd ansawdd cyfathrebu rhieni yn dylanwadu’n gryf ar ddatblygiad iaith plentyn. Credai fod oedolion yn chwarae rhan allweddol mewn helpu plant i ddatblygu ac ymestyn. Ynghyd ag edrych ar gyfnod datblygiad cyfredol plentyn, edrychodd ar beth allai’r plentyn ei wneud yn y cyfnod nesaf. Galwodd hyn yn ‘parth datblygiad procsimol’ neu ‘haenen datblygu brocsimol’. Dyma’r gwahaniaeth rhwng yr hyn y gall y plentyn ei gyflawni’n annibynnol a’r hyn y gall y plentyn ei gyflawni o gael arweiniad ac anogaeth gan athro medrus. Cyflawnir llawer o ddatblygiad gwybyddol y plentyn drwy ryngweithio cymdeithasol â pherson arall mwy gwybodus. Mae ‘haenen datblygu brocsimol’ yn bodoli wrth chwarae hyd yn oed, gan fod y plentyn yn ymddwyn ar lefel uwch na’i ymddygiad arferol o ddydd i ddydd, er enghraifft, drwy ddychmygu ei fod yn oedolyn wrth chwarae ‘tŷ bach’.

Lluniadaethol Gwybyddol
Bruner

Awgrymodd Bruner bod angen i blant ymwneud yn weithredol â’u dysgu. Credai fod rôl yr oedolyn yn bwysig a bod rhyngweithiadau’n chwarae rhan allweddol mewn hybu iaith. Yn ôl Bruner, roedd angen i rieni ddarllen i’w plant er mwyn helpu i ddatblygu gramadeg, cyfathrebu a sgiliau llythrennedd. Mae defnyddio fformatau iaith fel ailadrodd iaith a llyfrau darllen yn helpu plant i ddysgu sut mae defnyddio iaith. Mewn geiriau eraill, maen nhw’n dysgu deall bod gan iaith drefn a’i bod yn ymwneud â rhyngweithiadau.

Lluniadaethol Gwybyddol
Pavlov

Mae damcaniaeth cyflyru clasurol Pavlov yn edrych ar sut gall plant gael eu cyflyru i ymddwyn mewn ffordd arbennig a dysgu ymddygiad. Mae plant yn dysgu sut i gysylltu gwahanol ymddygiadau gyda gwahanol ymatebion. Os yw plentyn yn cael sylw am weithred neu am siarad mewn ffordd arbennig, ac mae’r ymateb mae’n derbyn yn ddymunol, mae’n debygol o ail-wneud yr ymddygiad. Os yw’r ymateb yn negyddol yna mae’n annhebygol o ail-wneud yr ymddygiad. Er enghraifft, gall plentyn wybod bod crio’n tynnu sylw ei rieni, ac felly bydd yn ail-wneud hynny.

Ymddygiadol
Skinner

Awgrymodd Skinner y gellir atgyfnerthu ymddygiad ac y gall plant ddysgu drwy ganlyniadau eu gweithredoedd. Galwodd hyn yn ‘gyflyru gweithredol’. Gall yr atgyfnerthu fod yn gadarnhaol, sef canlyniad pleserus, fel canmoliaeth, neu’n negyddol, sef canlyniad annifyr, fel cosb. Gall plant gael eu gwobrwyo neu eu canmol am ddweud eu gair cyntaf, felly gallent ailadrodd hynny neu gallai plant hŷn gael eu cosbi am regi ac felly’n llai tebygol o wneud hynny eto.

Ymddygiadol
Watson

Credai Watson fod gan blant dri adwaith emosiynol sylfaenol:

  • ofn
  • llid (rage)
  • cariad.

Awgrymodd y gellid cyflyru adweithiau emosiynol newydd ac y byddai’r rhain yn datblygu gydag amser. Pwysleisiodd hefyd bwysigrwydd dysgu a dylanwadau amgylcheddol mewn datblygiad dynol.

Ymddygiadol
Groos

Credai Karl Groos bod chwarae’n caniatáu i blant ymarfer rolau oedolion a meithrin sgiliau y bydd eu hangen yn ddiweddarach i oroesi. Pan fydd anifeiliaid yn 'chwarae' maen nhw'n ymarfer greddfau sylfaenol, fel ymladd, er mwyn goroesi.

Chwarae
Klein

Yn dilyn ymchwil, datblygodd Melanie Klein techneg chwarae fel therapi. Defnyddiodd Klein ystafell chwarae syml, gyda chasgliad o deganau ac offer chwarae rôl, a roddodd ryddid i'r plant ddefnyddio eu dychymyg a mynegi eu teimladau. Defnyddiwyd iaith syml a dealladwy wrth ryngweithio â phlant a rhoddwyd cyfleoedd i'r plant gymryd rôl yr oedolyn wrth chwarae, tra bod yr oedolyn yn chwarae rôl y plentyn. Sylweddolodd Klein fod chwarae yn ffordd o gysylltu a chyfathrebu â phlant mewn ffordd na ellid ei gyflawni ar lafar. Dyma sy'n gwneud therapi chwarae mor effeithiol â phlant, yn enwedig plant ag anawsterau cyfathrebu neu sydd wedi profi trawma eithafol na fyddant yn gallu ei fynegi gyda geirfa gyfyngedig.

Chwarae
Freud

Roedd Sigmund Freud yn credu bod plant yn chwarae er mwyn meistroli emosiynau negyddol fel dicter neu bryder. Credai bod chwarae'n cynnig cyfleoedd i blant ddelio â phrofiadau a digwyddiadau trawmatig trwy ddarparu ffyrdd diogel i blant fynegi eu teimladau. Mae chwarae'n helpu plant i reoli eu teimladau a delio â sefyllfaoedd sy'n achosi straen neu drawma.

Chwarae
Froebel

Damcaniaethwr mewn chwarae oedd Friedrich Froebel a gredai bod pob plentyn yn cael ei eni’n dda ac y dylai oedolion ddarparu’r gweithgareddau a’r amgylchedd priodol er mwyn iddyn nhw ddatblygu. Roedd Friedrich Froebel yn credu bod plant yn dysgu ar ei gorau trwy chwarae dychmygol. Yr oedd hefyd yn enwog iawn am hybu ‘chwarae bloc’ (byddai’n galw'r rhain yn rhoddion) er mwyn hybu dealltwriaeth plant o gysyniadau mathemategol trwy chwarae.

Chwarae
Steiner

Roedd Rudolph Steiner yn credu y dylid ystyried bywyd fel taith ac nid ras, ac felly’n bwysig bod plant yn cael bod yn blant yn gyntaf, a thrwy hynny y byddant fwy tebygol o ddatblygu i fod yn oedolion cytbwys a chall. Cred Steiner mai chwarae oedd ‘gwaith difrifol plentyndod’. Yr oedd hefyd yn credu y bod yna dair rhan i blentyndod sef y ‘mynnu’, ‘y galon’ a’r ‘pen’.

Chwarae
Montessori

Meddyg o'r Eidal oedd Maria Montessori a weithiai gyda phlant tlawd yn Rhufain yn y 1900au. Roedd ei theori hi am chwarae yn wahanol i theori Froebel, gan nad oedd hi'n credu bod chwarae dychmygu yn bwysig.

Credai Montessori bod angen i chwarae fod yn fwy strwythuredig ac ymestynnol, bod angen i blant wneud mwy na dychmygu, bod angen iddynt wneud pethau go iawn megis coginio neu arddio gydag offer go iawn. Credai bod angen offer, defnyddiau a dodrefn maint plant ar blant. Fe ddyluniodd a chynhyrchu ei hoffer ei hun oedd yn gadael ac yn annog plant i archwilio cysyniadau megis siâp, pwysau, lliw a rhifau. Fel Froebel, credai Montessori bod plant yn dysgu drwy wneud a bod chwarae tu allan cyn bwysiced â chwarae tu mewn, bod chwarae yn ddrych ar fywyd, a bod plant yn ddysgwyr gweithredol.

Chwarae

Gwybodaeth wedi’i gymryd a’i addasu o wefan Hwb:

https://hwb.gov.wales

Neurological development and brain development

Ddatblygiad niwrolegol a datblygiad yr ymennydd

Health and Social Care

The main parts of the brain

  1. Cerebrum - Part of the front section of the brain; two hemispheres that integrate the sensory functions and initiate the voluntary motor functions; the intellectual function in humans.
  2. Cerebellum - Part of the back section of the brain; coordinates the accuracy and timing of muscular activity; posture; learning motor skills.
  3. Medulla oblongata - Part of the back section of the brain; connects the brain to the spinal cord; controls the involuntary, autonomic functions.
  4. Occipital lobe - A lobe on the cerebrum that contains the main sight cortex and is associated with hearing.
  5. Corpus callosum - A tract that the nerve fibre passes through to connect the two hemispheres of the cerebrum.
  6. Hypothalamus - Controls general functions, e.g. body temperature, blood solute concentration, hunger, thirst, sleep. Controls the autonomic nervous system; connects the brain to the endocrine system, through the pituitary gland.
  7. Pituitary gland - The main endocrine gland that is associated with growth and development and the other endocrine glands by secreting hormones including hormones that control osmo-regulation, primary and secondary sexual characteristics.
  8. Frontal lobe - A lobe on the cerebrum that contains the Broca area, the motor area and the reasoning, planning, emotions and problem solving sites.
  9. Parietal lobe - A lobe on the cerebrum that contains the senses area; associated with taste and visual-spacial processing.
  10. Temporal lobe - A lobe on the cerebrum that contains the hypocampus and the Wernicke area. It is related to learning, memory, making sense of sounds and processing complex stimuli e.g. faces.
  11. The motor area - Sends nervous stimuli through the corpus callosum, to effectors on the other side of the body.
  12. Sensory area - Receives nervous stimuli from the body's sensory receptors, through the thalamus. Nerve fibre from both sides of the body cross in the corpus callosum.
  13. Wernicke's area - Controls understanding of written and spoken language.

The nervous system and the brain

The brain controls all the functions of the body. The remainder of the nervous system is similar to a network that transmits messages back and forth from the brain to different parts of the body. It does so through the spine that runs from the brain down through the back. The nervous system is a network of cells that transmit and process information. The nervous system includes the brain, the spine, the sensory organs and all the nerves that connect these organs to the remainder of the body. The spine stretches down from the brain, and is protected by the bones within the spinal column, the vertebrae. The nervous system has two main parts: the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system. The nervous system controls the body's actions by discovering changes in the environment. It controls what the body does, connects different actions and decides whether any response is required and if so, how to respond. The nervous system transmits signals between the brain and the remainder of the body.

The development of the brain starts within a week of becoming pregnant. About 22 days after conception, the neural tube forms. This tube will develop the central nervous system at a later date, including the spine and the brain. By about the eighth week of pregnancy, the brain and the central nervous system's basic structures are intact. During the second month of pregnancy, the neural tube develops to the brain and the spine and neurones continue to form. By the third month, the brain's basic development allows the embryo to show reflexes and to respond to its environment. As the nervous system starts to develop, the heart starts to pump blood, and other parts of the body start to develop e.g. the spinal column. The brain continues to grow and develop, nearly doubling in size between weeks 16 and 28, and the nervous system controls more bodily functions.

The brain of a newborn baby is approximately one third (⅓) of the size of an adult brain, but it has the full mechanics required to develop speech, language, balance, coordination and sensory input. At birth, the part of the brain responsible for sensitivity to touch is already well developed. Babies are more responsive to touch in certain areas, for example, areas around their mouth, the palms of their hands and the soles of their feet. This part of the brain continues to develop quickly.

From birth, a baby has approximately 100 billion brain cells that start to connect with each other, although the brain is not yet fully developed. Many neural connections or synapses happen after birth, in order for the cells to form networks. The sensory paths for basic sight and hearing develop first of all, followed by the paths for early language skills and higher cognitive functions.

During the first years of life, more than 1 million new neural connections are made each second, which means that children discover new things during almost every waking second. Young children start to form synapses quickly that allows them to learn things quickly. These windows of opportunities should be seized in order to ensure the best possible brain development in children. The early years of a child's life, when the brain is forming, provide an essential opportunity to develop the child's full potential. During these great opportunities, children learn specific information and skills easily and spontaneously. If the information and skills are not learnt during this period, they will have to be learnt by repeating and remembering at a later stage in life. Between four and five years old, children have a good opportunity to learn writing and reading skills. When they have access to the correct materials at the correct time, learning to read and write will be a natural, continuous process. 'Good opportunities' to acquire language, which is the process of learning a new language, are important during the early years. Children can learn a new language, or acquire a new language, by being immersed in the language.

Between birth and 10 years old, children's brains form trillions of connections, and many of them will be erased throughout their lives, as the brain gets rid of connections that are not used often or that are never used. As synapses are used, or as a skill or idea is practised or heard, the synapses are strengthened. This means that skills that are regularly practised, such as language and walking, become easy for the child, whilst skills that are not practised regularly disappear.

From an early age, babies will start to make simple connections such as starting to recognise the voice of a parent. By 3 years old, the brain has reached 80% of its full size. Around 4-5 years old, children's memory skills will increase. Children will be able to remember events such as their birthday party or a recent holiday. Different parts of the brain are responsible for different functions, for example, problem solving, reasoning, motor functions, speech, hearing, behaviour, memory, the senses, balance and coordination.

Waiting for experiences

'Waiting for experiences' affects a variety of aspects on the development of the brain, including sight and hearing, social, emotional and linguistic development. Waiting for experiences means that the usual environment provides the necessary input for babies to develop neural connections. Waiting for experiences means the neural connections that happen as a result of ordinary experiences that each child may come across in their usual environment. These general experiences are visual stimulation, sound (specifically voices) and physical movement. If the baby's brain does not receive input during these key periods, these functions will be permanently lost.

Depending on experiences

'Depending on experiences' includes babies' brains developing socially, emotionally, linguistically and cognitively. The development depends on experiences as the neural connections depend on the quality of the environmental input. Although every baby is born with the ability to develop language, their ability to communicate verbally depends on the quality of the language that they have heard during their early years. If a child does not come into contact with language during their early years, their language will not develop as well. Social and emotional development also depend on experiences, especially the environmental influence during these good opportunities. This means that this is the best possible time for linguistic, social and emotional development.

Serve and return

‘Serve and return’ interactions support neurological development and brain development. When a baby cries and an adult responds with eye contact, or words, neural connections are built and reinforced in the child's brain that support social development and the development of communication skills. This social interaction is important in order to stimulate the baby's senses as well as building trust and a sense of emotional security. The way that adults touch, hold, feed, speak to and look at babies provides important input to the brain.

Think of serve and return as a game of tennis between the child and the adult. The child 'serves' by reaching out to the adult, for example, with eye contact, facial expressions, gestures or touch. The adult responds, or 'returns', by speaking, smiling, laughing or sharing a toy with the child.

These interactions support the development of the brain. If an adult's response to a child is unreliable, inappropriate or absent, this may have an adverse effect on the development of the brain, and also on subsequent physical, mental or emotional health.

Language development

Language development is split into two parts and includes verbal and non-verbal communication. Children learn and develop language by copying and imitating those around them. Individuals develop language at different speeds. When a baby is born, they convey their needs by crying, chattering and using facial expressions, until their vocabulary starts to develop. This is called the pre-linguistic period and happens between birth and 12 months. The linguistic period happens when speech develops and children learn the rules of grammar as well as the meaning of words. They use single words to begin, then move on to putting words together to form full sentences that will become increasingly complex.

Bilingualism

Children benefit from bilingualism. The bilingual brain is used to dealing with two languages at once. This develops better executive functioning skills, for example, controlling attention, organising information, disregarding unnecessary information, flexible thinking, concentration and memory. Executive functioning skills enable individuals to focus and to think quickly when there are lots of different things happening at once, for example, when driving through heavy traffic. These skills are stronger in bilingual children as they are constantly used to controlling the use of both languages.

Bilingual children learn better in noisy environments such as classrooms, and cope better with changes in their environment. This is because the bilingual brain is always focused on making sense of words and this helps them to concentrate. Bilingual children have a better developed hypocampus. The hypocampus is the part of the brain that is responsible for combining information, learning new texts and spatial navigation. Other parts of the brain are also developed and this leads to better concentration and the ability to make the best of new learning opportunities.

The bilingual brain has two complex language networks to store, process and recall information. Both languages are constantly active in the brain. The individual controls both linguistic networks in order to choose one language to speak, rather than a combination of both. The bilingual brain can change back and forth from one language to the other quickly and often. This is called code switching, which means transmitting code from one language to the other. Bilingual individuals' language networks are always operational and are constantly competing when the individuals are trying to speak or listen. This means that bilingual people transmit code from one language to the other when speaking and listening, and this changes specific parts of the brain. Bilingual people improve their ability to change from one language to the other with practice and experience, and this improvement shows in the structure of their brain. Bilingual people's brains show significant restructuring in those areas responsible for language.

Further reading:

Early brain development: A firestorm of creativity

https://uni.cf/2GiYtkL

IN BRIEF: THE SCIENCE OF EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT

https://bit.ly/2NyYemp

Baby Brain Map

https://bit.ly/2beYxkM

Identify the functions and structures of the brain

https://bit.ly/2O5SFRP

Bilingualism and the brain

https://bit.ly/2JRulOa

5 Steps for Brain-Building

https://bit.ly/2I7m4TH

Key Concepts: Serve and Return

https://bit.ly/2xSLu2u

Prif rannau’r ymennydd

  1. Cerebrwm - Rhan o'r ymennydd blaen; dau hemisffer sy'n integreiddio swyddogaethau synhwyraidd ac yn cychwyn swyddogaethau echddygol gwirfoddol; swyddogaeth ddeallusol mewn bodau dynol.
  2. Cerebelwm - Rhan o'r ymennydd ôl; cydlynu manwl gywirdeb ac amseru gweithgareddau cyhyrau; osgo; dysgu sgiliau echddygol.
  3. Medwla oblongata - Rhan o'r ymennydd ôl; cysylltu'r ymennydd â madruddyn y cefn; rheoli swyddogaethau anwirfoddol, awtonomig.
  4. Llabed yr ocsipwt - Llabed ar y cerebrwm sy'n cynnwys prif gortecs y golwg ac sy'n gysylltiedig â'r golwg.
  5. Corpws caloswm - Darn o wynnin y mae edafedd nerf yn mynd drwyddo i gysylltu dau hemisffer y cerebrwm.
  6. Hypothalamws - Rheoli swyddogaethau cyffredinol e.e. tymheredd y corff, crynodiad hydoddion yn y gwaed, chwant bwyd, syched, cwsg. Rheoli'r system nerfol awtonomig; cysylltu’r ymennydd â'r system endocrin, drwy'r chwarren bitwidol.
  7. Chwaren bitwidol - Y brif chwarren endocrin sy'n gysylltiedig â thwf a datblygiad a swyddogaethau'r chwarennau endocrin eraill drwy secretu hormonau gan gynnwys rhai sy'n rheoli osmoreolaeth, nodweddion rhywiol cynradd ac eilaidd.
  8. Llabed flaen - Llabed ar y cerebrwm sy'n cynnwys rhan Broca, y rhan echddygol a safleoedd rhesymu, cynllunio, emosiynau a datrys problemau.
  9. Llabed barwydol - Llabed ar y cerebrwm sy'n cynnwys y rhan synhwyraidd; yn gysylltiedig â blasu a phrosesu gweledol-gofodol.
  10. Llabed yr arlais - Llabed ar y cerebrwm sy'n cynnwys y hipocampws a’r rhan Wernicke. Mae'n ymwneud â dysgu, cof, cynhyrchu synnwyr o sain a phrosesu ysgogiadau cymhleth e.e. wynebau.
  11. Rhan echddygol - Anfon ysgogiadau nerfol drwy'r corpws caloswm, i effeithyddion ar yr ochr arall i'r corff.
  12. Rhan synhwyraidd - Derbyn ysgogiadau nerfol o dderbynyddion synhwyraidd y corff, drwy'r thalamws. Mae edafedd nerf o ddwy ochr y corff yn croesi yn y corpws caloswm.
  13. Rhan Wernicke - Rheoli dealltwriaeth o iaith ysgrifenedig a llafar.

Y system nerfol a’r ymennydd

Mae'r ymennydd yn rheoli holl swyddogaethau'r corff. Mae gweddill y system nerfol yn debyg i rwydwaith sy'n trosglwyddo negeseuon yn ôl ac ymlaen o'r ymennydd i wahanol rannau o'r corff. Mae'n gwneud hyn trwy linyn y cefn, sy'n rhedeg o'r ymennydd i lawr drwy'r cefn. Rhwydwaith o gelloedd sy’n trosglwyddo a phrosesu gwybodaeth yw'r system nerfol. Mae'r system nerfol yn cynnwys yr ymennydd, llinyn y cefn, organau synhwyraidd, a'r holl nerfau sy'n cysylltu'r organau hyn â gweddill y corff. Mae llinyn y cefn yn ymestyn i lawr o'r ymennydd, ac yn cael ei amddiffyn gan esgyrn yr asgwrn cefn, sef y fertebra. Mae dau brif ran i’r system nerfol: y system nerfol ymylol a’r system nerfol ganolog. Mae’r system nerfol yn rheoli gweithgareddau’r corff drwy ganfod newidiadau i’r amgylchedd. Mae’n rheoli beth mae’r corff yn ei wneud, yn cysylltu gwahanol weithredoedd a phenderfynu a oes angen gweithredu a sut i weithredu. Mae'r system nerfol yn trosglwyddo signalau rhwng yr ymennydd a gweddill y corff.

Mae datblygiad yr ymennydd yn dechrau o fewn wythnos o feichiogi. Tua 22 diwrnod ar ôl y cenhedlu mae’r tiwb niwral yn ffurfio. Bydd y tiwb hwn yn datblygu i’r system nerfol ganolog nes ymlaen gan gynnwys llinyn y cefn a'r ymennydd. Erbyn tua’r wythfed wythnos o feichiogrwydd mae strwythurau sylfaenol yr ymennydd a'r system nerfol ganolog wedi’u sefydlu. Yn ystod yr ail fis o feichiogrwydd mae'r tiwb niwral yn datblygu i'r ymennydd ac mae llinyn y cefn a niwronau yn parhau i ffurfio. Erbyn y trydydd mis, mae datblygiad sylfaenol yr ymennydd yn caniatáu i'r embryo arddangos atgyrchau ac ymateb i'w amgylchedd. Wrth i'r system nerfol ddechrau datblygu, mae'r galon yn dechrau pwmpio gwaed, ac mae rhannau eraill o'r corff yn dechrau datblygu e.e. asgwrn cefn. Mae'r ymennydd yn parhau i dyfu a datblygu gan bron dyblu mewn maint o wythnosau 16 i 28 ac mae'r system nerfol yn rheoli mwy o swyddogaethau corfforol.

Mae ymennydd baban newydd-anedig tua thraean (⅓) maint ymennydd oedolyn, ond mae ganddo'r holl fecaneg sydd ei angen arno i ddatblygu lleferydd, iaith, cydbwysedd, cydsymud a mewnbwn synhwyraidd. Ar ôl geni mae'r rhan o'r ymennydd sy'n gyfrifol am sensitifrwydd i gyffwrdd eisoes wedi'i datblygu'n dda. Mae babanod yn fwy ymatebol i gyffyrddiad ar rai mannau, er enghraifft ardaloedd o amgylch y geg, y palmwydd a gwadnau'r traed. Mae'r rhan hon o'r ymennydd yn parhau i ddatblygu'n gyflym.

O enedigaeth mae gan fabi tua 100 biliwn o gelloedd yr ymennydd sy'n dechrau cysylltu â'i gilydd, er nad yw'r ymennydd wedi'i ddatblygu'n gyfan gwbl. Mae llawer o gysylltiadau neu synapsau niwral yn digwydd ar ôl enedigaeth er mwyn i’r celloedd ffurfio rhwydweithiau. Llwybrau synhwyraidd ar gyfer golwg a chlyw sylfaenol sy’n datblygu'n gyntaf, yna llwybrau ar gyfer sgiliau iaith gynnar a swyddogaethau gwybyddol uwch.

Yn ystod y blynyddoedd cyntaf o fywyd, mae mwy nag 1 miliwn o gysylltiadau niwral newydd yn cael eu ffurfio bob eiliad, sy’n golygu bod plant yn darganfod pethau newydd ym mron pob eiliad deffro. Mae plant ifanc yn dechrau ffurfio synapsau ar gyfradd gyflym sy'n caniatáu iddynt ddysgu pethau’n sydyn. Mae angen manteisio ar y ‘cyfleoedd da’, neu ‘windows of opportunity’ hyn i sicrhau datblygiad yr ymennydd gorau posib i blant. Mae'r blynyddoedd cynnar ym mywyd plentyn, pan fydd yr ymennydd yn ffurfio, yn gyfle holl bwysig i ddatblygu potensial llawn plentyn. Yn ystod y cyfleoedd da hyn mae plant yn dysgu gwybodaeth a sgiliau penodol yn rhwydd ac yn ddigymell. Os nad yw’r wybodaeth a’r sgiliau yn cael eu dysgu yn ystod y cyfnod hwn bydd rhaid eu dysgu drwy ailadrodd a chofio nes ymlaen mewn bywyd. Rhwng pedair a phump oed mae gan blant gyfle da i ddatblygu sgiliau ysgrifennu a darllen. Pan fydd ganddynt fynediad i'r deunyddiau cywir ar yr amser cywir, bydd dysgu darllen ac ysgrifennu yn broses naturiol, parhaus. Mae ‘cyfleoedd da’ ar gyfer caffael iaith, sef y broses o ddysgu iaith newydd, yn bwysig yn ystod y blynyddoedd cynnar. Gall plant ddysgu, neu gaffael iaith newydd trwy gael eu trochi yn yr iaith.

Rhwng genedigaeth a 10 oed mae ymennydd plant yn ffurfio triliynau o gysylltiadau, a bydd llawer ohonynt yn cael eu dileu trwy gydol eu hoes, gan fod yr ymennydd yn cael gwared ar gysylltiadau nad yw’n cael eu defnyddio'n aml neu byth. Wrth i synapsau cael eu defnyddio, neu wrth i sgil neu syniad cael ei ymarfer neu’i glywed, mae’r synapsau yn cryfhau. Mae hyn yn golygu bod sgiliau sy'n cael eu hymarfer yn aml, fel iaith a cherdded, yn dod yn hawdd i blentyn, tra bod sgiliau nad yw’n cael eu hymarfer yn aml yn diflannu.

O oedran cynnar, bydd babanod yn dechrau gwneud cysylltiadau syml megis dechrau adnabod llais rhiant. Erbyn 3 oed mae'r ymennydd wedi cyrraedd 80% o'i faint llawn. O gwmpas tua 4-5 oed bydd sgiliau cof plant yn cynyddu. Bydd plant yn gallu cofio digwyddiadau fel eu parti pen-blwydd neu wyliau diweddar. Mae gwahanol rannau o'r ymennydd yn gyfrifol am wahanol swyddogaethau, er enghraifft datrys problemau, rhesymu, swyddogaeth modur, lleferydd, clyw, ymddygiad, cof, y synhwyrau, cydbwysedd a chydsymud.

Disgwyl profiadau

Mae ‘disgwyl profiadau’ yn effeithio ar ystod o agweddau ar ddatblygiad yr ymennydd gan gynnwys golwg a chlyw, datblygiad cymdeithasol, emosiynol ac iaith. Mae disgwyl profiadau yn golygu bod yr amgylchedd arferol yn rhoi’r mewnbwn angenrheidiol i fabanod ddatblygu cysylltiadau niwral. Mae disgwyl profiadau yn golygu’r cysylltiadau niwral sy'n digwydd o ganlyniad i brofiadau cyffredin y mae pob plentyn yn agored iddynt mewn amgylchedd arferol. Y profiadau cyffredinol hyn yw symbyliad gweledol (visual stimulation), sain (yn benodol lleisiau), a symudiad corfforol. Os na fydd ymennydd y baban yn cael mewnbwn yn ystod y cyfnodau allweddol hyn, bydd y swyddogaethau hyn yn cael eu colli'n barhaol.

Dibynnu ar brofiadau

Mae ‘dibynnu ar brofiadau’ yn cynnwys ymennydd baban sy'n datblygu yn gymdeithasol, emosiynol, ieithyddol a gwybyddol. Mae’r datblygiad yn dibynnu ar brofiadau oherwydd bod y cysylltiadau niwral yn dibynnu ar ansawdd y mewnbwn amgylcheddol. Er bod pob baban yn cael eu geni â’r gallu i ddatblygu iaith, bydd eu gallu i gyfathrebu ar lafar yn dibynnu ar ansawdd yr iaith y maent wedi clywed yn ystod eu blynyddoedd cynnar. Os nad yw plentyn yn dod i gysylltiad ag iaith yn ystod y blynyddoedd cynnar, ni fydd datblygiad iaith yn datblygu gystal. Mae datblygiad cymdeithasol ac emosiynol hefyd yn dibynnu ar brofiadau, yn arbennig y dylanwad amgylcheddol yn ystod y cyfleoedd da hyn. Mae hyn yn golygu mai dyma'r amser gorau posibl ar gyfer datblygiad ieithyddol, cymdeithasol ac emosiynol.

Cyflwyno a dychwelyd

Mae rhyngweithiadau ‘cyflwyno a dychwelyd’ yn cefnogi datblygiad niwrolegol a datblygiad yr ymennydd. Pan fydd baban yn crio ac mae oedolyn yn ymateb gyda chyswllt llygaid, neu eiriau, mae cysylltiadau niwral yn cael eu hadeiladu a'u cryfhau yn ymennydd y plentyn sy'n cefnogi datblygiad cymdeithasol a sgiliau cyfathrebu. Mae'r rhyngweithio cymdeithasol hwn yn bwysig er mwyn ysgogi synhwyrau’r baban yn ogystal ag adeiladu ymddiriedaeth ac ymdeimlad o ddiogelwch emosiynol. Mae'r ffordd y mae oedolion yn cyffwrdd, dal, bwydo, siarad ac edrych ar fabanod yn rhoi mewnbwn pwysig i'r ymennydd.

Meddyliwch am gyflwyno a dychwelyd fel gêm tennis rhwng y plentyn a'r oedolyn. Mae'r plentyn yn ‘cyflwyno’ trwy ymestyn allan i’r oedolyn, er enghraifft gyda chyswllt llygad, mynegiant y wyneb, ystumiau, neu gyffwrdd. Bydd yr oedolyn yn ymateb, neu ‘dychwelyd’ trwy siarad, gwenu, chwerthin neu rannu tegan â’r plentyn.

Mae’r rhyngweithiadau hyn yn cefnogi datblygiad yr ymennydd. Os yw ymateb oedolyn i blentyn yn annibynadwy, yn amhriodol, neu'n absennol, efallai y bydd datblygiad yr ymennydd yn cael ei amharu, ac efallai y bydd amhariad ar iechyd corfforol, meddyliol ac emosiynol dilynol.

Datblygiad iaith

Rhennir datblygiad iaith yn ddwy ran ac mae’n cynnwys cyfathrebu geiriol a dieiriau. Mae plant yn dysgu ac yn datblygu iaith drwy gopïo a dynwared y rhai sydd o’u cwmpas. Mae unigolion yn datblygu iaith ar wahanol gyflymder. Pan enir baban maen nhw’n cyfleu eu hanghenion drwy grio a chlebran ac ystumiau wynebol, nes bydd eu geirfa’n dechrau datblygu. Gelwir hyn yn gyfnod cyn-ieithyddol ac mae’n digwydd rhwng geni a 12 mis. Mae’r cyfnod ieithyddol yn digwydd pan fod lleferydd yn datblygu ac mae plant yn dysgu rheolau gramadeg ynghyd ag ystyron geiriau. Maen nhw’n defnyddio geiriau sengl yn gyntaf, yna maen nhw’n symud ymlaen i roi geiriau at ei gilydd i ffurfio brawddegau llawn a fydd yn dod yn fwyfwy cymhleth.

Dwyieithrwydd

Mae gan ddwyieithrwydd fanteision i blant. Mae’r ymennydd dwyieithog wedi arfer â thrin dwy iaith ar yr un pryd. Mae hyn yn datblygu sgiliau uwch wybyddol (executive functioning) gwell, er enghraifft rheoli sylw, trefnu gwybodaeth, diystyru gwybodaeth ddiangen, meddwl yn hyblyg, canolbwyntio a chof. Mae sgiliau uwch wybyddol yn galluogi unigolion i ganolbwyntio a meddwl yn sydyn pan mae llawer o bethau’n mynd ymlaen, er enghraifft gyrru drwy traffic mawr trwm. Mae’r sgiliau hyn yn gryfach mewn plentyn dwyieithog oherwydd ei fod ar waith drwy’r amser drwy reoli’r defnydd o’r ddwy iaith.

Mae plant dwyieithog yn dysgu'n well mewn amgylcheddau swnllyd fel yr ystafell ddosbarth, ac yn ymdopi’n well i newidiadau yn eu hamgylchedd. Mae hyn oherwydd bod yr ymennydd dwyieithog yn canolbwyntio bob amser ar wneud synnwyr o eiriau ac mae hyn yn eu help i ganolbwyntio. Mae gan unigolion dwyieithog hipocampws sydd wedi'i ddatblygu'n well. Yr hipocampws yw rhan o'r ymennydd sydd yn gyfrifol am gyfuno gwybodaeth, dysgu testunau newydd a mordwyo gofodol (spatial navigation). Mae rhannau eraill o'r ymennydd hefyd yn cael eu datblygu ac mae hyn yn arwain at ganolbwyntio gwell a'r gallu i wneud y gorau o gyfleoedd dysgu newydd.

Mae gan yr ymennydd dwyieithog ddau rwydwaith iaith gymhleth i storio, prosesu ac adalw gwybodaeth. Mae’r ddwy iaith yn weithgar yn yr ymennydd drwy’r amser. Mae unigolyn yn rheoli’r ddau rwydwaith ieithyddol er mwyn dewis un iaith i siarad, yn hytrach na chymysgedd o’r ddwy. Gall yr ymennydd dwyieithog newid yn ôl ac ymlaen o un iaith i’r llall yn sydyn ac yn aml. Gelwir hyn yn ‘code switching’, sef trosglwyddo cod o un iaith i’r llall. Mae rhwydweithiau iaith unigolyn dwyieithog bob amser yn weithredol ac yn cystadlu yn erbyn ei gilydd bob eiliad y maent yn ceisio siarad neu wrando. Mae hyn yn golygu bod pobl ddwyieithog yn trosglwyddo cod o un iaith i’r llall wrth siarad a gwrando, ac mae hyn yn newid rhannau penodol o’r ymennydd. Mae pobl ddwyieithog yn gwella eu gallu i newid o un iaith i'r llall gydag ymarfer a phrofiad, ac mae'r gwelliant hwn yn dangos yn strwythur eu hymennydd. Mae ymennydd pobl ddwyieithog yn dangos ailstrwythuro sylweddol yn y rhanbarthau hynny sy'n gyfrifol am iaith.

Darllen pellach:

Early brain development: A firestorm of creativity

https://uni.cf/2GiYtkL

IN BRIEF: THE SCIENCE OF EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT

https://bit.ly/2NyYemp

Baby Brain Map

https://bit.ly/2beYxkM

Adnabod swyddogaethau a ffurfiadau’r ymennydd

https://bit.ly/30F3pIf

Bilingualism and the brain

https://bit.ly/2JRulOa

5 Steps for Brain-Building

https://bit.ly/2I7m4TH

Key Concepts: Serve and Return

https://bit.ly/2xSLu2u

The possible pre and post-natal adverse factors which could affect neurological development and brain development in relation to physical, emotional and cognitive growth

Y ffactorau andwyol cynenedigol ac ôl-enedigol posibl a fyddai’n gallu effeithio ar ddatblygiad niwrolegol a datblygiad yr ymennydd mewn perthynas â thwf corfforol, emosiynol a gwybyddol

Outline of a human brain floating above someone's hand

Young children's brains are flexible so that the child can adapt to a wide range of environments and interactions. Although genes contribute to the normal development sequence, the development is influenced by environmental factors that affect the mother during pregnancy. As the development of the brain starts within a week of becoming pregnant, adverse childhood experiences before birth can affect neurological development and brain development.

After birth, a baby’s brain is shaped and formed by the behaviour of the adults around them, so if a baby's brain is developing healthily, they are more likely to be happy and successful as an older child and as an adult. Negative interactions between the baby or the young child and the surrounding adults affect the brain. If an adult's response to a child is unreliable, inappropriate or absent, this may have an adverse effect on the development of the brain, and also on physical, mental or emotional health. A lack of interactions with adults can also affect social and emotional development. If a child does not learn how to form attachments during the first years of their life, their ability to form attachments in later life will be significantly impaired.

When children do not receive the care they require or when they are abused or neglected, this can affect the development of the brain. Experiencing trauma and severe stress can be very damaging to young children. Adverse experiences can have a significant effect and change the brain of a child and as a result, affect their health and physical, emotional and cognitive growth, and their quality of life throughout their life. Trauma and stress, such as that caused by adverse experiences, change the way that nervous networks in the brain work, and this changes the minds, feelings and behaviour of the child.

Nervous networks form systems between the brain and other organs to control the main functions of our body, including the fight or flight response system that responds to stress. The response system - fight or flight - prepares our body to respond to stress by increasing the heart rate, blood pressure and stress hormones e.g. cortisol. Adverse childhood experiences lead to weakened or damaged brain development. Children who experience several adverse factors are more likely to experience developmental delay and health problems in later life, including heart disease, diabetes, substance misuse and depression. Children who have suffered adverse experiences are more likely to smoke, drink alcohol and be treated for mental illnesses.

"Exposure to ACEs can alter how children’s brains develop as well as changing the development of their immunological and hormonal systems. Subsequently, those with greater exposure to ACEs are more likely to go on to develop health-harming and anti-social behaviours, often during adolescence, such as binge drinking, smoking and drug use. Ultimately, such poor health and social behaviour means individuals progress more rapidly to develop diseases such as diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease and mental illness".

(Welsh Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study, Public Health Wales https://bit.ly/22zwYGs)

Adverse childhood experiences (ACE) are traumatic experiences that occur before the child turns 18 years old, and are remembered throughout life. Children can be vulnerable to a large number of adverse experiences, including:

  • emotional abuse - failing to meet children's emotional needs or harming children through the use of threats or aggressive language. This can also include a child witnessing violent assaults. This may lead to mental health problems, eating disorders or self-harm.
  • sexual abuse – any sexual activity a child is persuaded to experience. This does not have to involve physical contact and the child may not realise that it is wrong at the time. This may lead to severe mental health problems and the risk of self-harm.
  • physical abuse – this includes anything that causes physical harm to the child. Children who are physically abused may not do well in school and may develop drug and alcohol problems. They may also suffer from mental health problems.
  • violence in the home - includes physical, sexual, emotional and financial abuse. Children who experience domestic abuse are more likely to become involved in abusive relationships in adulthood.
  • neglect – habitual failure to meet the needs of a child. Children who experience neglect are more likely to offend and suffer from alcohol or drug problems.
  • experience of divorce or family breakdown - this can be traumatic for young children. One parent is likely to move out of the family home and children will be aware of bad feelings between adults. Sometimes, young children will feel that they are to blame for the breakdown of their parents' relationship, which can cause long-term problems that may affect the child's confidence and self-esteem.
  • grief - losing a member of the family will have a significant effect on children. Children who lose loved ones may react in different ways, including lack of sleep and loss of the ability to concentrate, and lack of appetite or motivation.
  • living with a family member who is alcohol dependent or dependent on other substances - women who misuse alcohol or substances during pregnancy can affect the healthy development of the child's brain.

Further reading:

Police & Partners ACEs Programme

http://www.aces.me.uk/

Key Concepts: Toxic Stress

https://bit.ly/2zahmAK

Mae ymennydd plentyn ifanc yn hyblyg er mwyn i’r plentyn addasu i ystod eang o amgylcheddau a rhyngweithiadau. Er bod genynnau’n cyfrannu at ddilyniant datblygiad arferol, mae’r datblygiad yn cael ei ddylanwadu gan ffactorau amgylcheddol sy'n effeithio ar y fam yn ystod beichiogrwydd. Gan fod datblygiad yr ymennydd yn dechrau o fewn wythnos o feichiogi gall ffactorau andwyol (Adverse Childhood Experiences, neu ACE) cyn-geni effeithio ar ddatblygiad niwrolegol a datblygiad yr ymennydd.

Ar ôl enedigaeth, mae ymennydd baban yn cael ei siapio a’i ffurfio gan yr hyn mae’r oedolion o’i hamgylch yn ei wneud felly os yw ymennydd baban yn datblygu'n iach mae'n fwy tebygol o fod yn hapus ac yn llwyddiannus fel plentyn hŷn ac oedolyn. Mae rhyngweithiadau negyddol rhwng baban neu blentyn ifanc a’r oedolion o’i hamgylch yn effeithio’r ymennydd. Os yw ymateb oedolyn i blentyn yn annibynadwy, yn amhriodol, neu'n absennol, efallai y bydd datblygiad yr ymennydd yn cael ei amharu, ac efallai y bydd amhariad ar iechyd corfforol, meddyliol ac emosiynol. Gall diffyg rhyngweithiadau ag oedolion hefyd effeithio ar ddatblygiad cymdeithasol ac emosiynol. Os nad yw plentyn yn dysgu sut i ffurfio ymlyniad yn ystod blynyddoedd cyntaf ei fywyd, bydd ei allu i ffurfio ymlyniadau yn ddiweddarach mewn bywyd yn cael ei rwystro'n ddifrifol.

Pan na fydd plant yn cael y gofal sydd ei angen arnynt neu os byddant yn dioddef camdriniaeth neu esgeulustod, gall datblygiad yn yr ymennydd cael ei effeithio. Gall profi trawma a straen difrifol fod yn niweidiol iawn i blant ifanc. Mae profiadau andwyol yn cael effaith mawr ac yn newid ymennydd plentyn ac o ganlyniad i hyn ei iechyd a thwf corfforol, emosiynol a gwybyddol, ac ansawdd ei fywyd ar hyd ei oes. Mae trawma a straen, fel yr hyn a achosir gan brofiadau andwyol, yn newid sut mae rhwydweithiau nerfol yn yr ymennydd yn gweithio, ac mae hyn yn newid meddyliau, teimladau ac ymddygiad plentyn.

Mae rhwydweithiau nerfol yn ffurfio systemau rhwng yr ymennydd ac organau eraill i reoli swyddogaethau mawr ein corff, gan gynnwys y system ymateb ymladd neu ffoi (fight or flight) sy’n ymateb i straen. Mae’r system ymateb - ymladd neu ffoi - yn paratoi ein cyrff i ymateb i straen trwy gynyddu curiad y galon, pwysedd gwaed a hormonau straen e.e. cortisol. Gall profiadau andwyol yn ystod plentyndod arwain at ddatblygiad ymennydd sy’n wan neu wedi’i difrodi. Mae plant sy’n profi llawer o ffactorau andwyol yn fwy tebygol o gael oedi datblygiadol a phroblemau iechyd nes ymlaen mewn bywyd, gan gynnwys clefyd y galon, diabetes, camddefnyddio sylweddau ac iselder. Mae plant sydd wedi dioddef â phrofiadau andwyol yn fwy tebygol o ysmygu, yfed alcohol a derbyn triniaeth ar gyfer salwch meddwl.

“Gall cyswllt ag ACE newid y ffordd y mae ymennydd plant yn datblygu yn ogystal â newid datblygiad eu systemau imiwnolegol a hormonaidd. O ganlyniad, mae’r rheiny sy’n cael y cyswllt mwyaf ag ACE yn fwy tebygol o fynd ymlaen i ddatblygu ymddygiad gwrthgymdeithasol ac sy’n niweidio iechyd, yn aml yn ystod y glasoed, fel goryfed mewn pyliau, smygu a defnyddio cyffuriau. Yn y pen draw, mae iechyd ac ymddygiad cymdeithasol gwael o’r fath yn golygu bod unigolion yn datblygu clefydau fel diabetes, canser, clefyd cardiofasgwlaidd a salwch meddwl yn gyflymach.”

(Astudiaeth Profiadau Niweidiol Mewn Plentyndod (ACE) Cymru, Iechyd Cyhoeddus Cymru https://bit.ly/2Yh2GPS )

Profiadau andwyol yn ystod plentyndod (ACEs) yw profiadau trawmatig sy’n digwydd cyn 18 oed ac yn cael eu cofio gydol oes. Gall blant fod yn agored i lawer iawn o brofiadau andwyol gan gynnwys:

  • camdriniaeth emosiynol - Methu ag ateb anghenion emosiynol plant neu niweidio plant drwy fygwth a defnyddio iaith ymosodol. Gall hyn hefyd gynnwys plentyn yn gweld ymosodiadau treisgar. Gall hyn arwain at broblemau iechyd meddwl, anhwylderau bwyta neu hunan-niweidio.
  • camdriniaeth rhywiol - Unrhyw weithgarwch rhywiol y mae plentyn yn cael ei berswadio i’w brofi. Nid oes raid i hyn gynnwys cyswllt corfforol ac efallai na fydd y plentyn yn sylweddoli ei fod yn anghywir ar y pryd. Gall hyn arwain at broblemau iechyd meddwl difrifol a'r risg o hunan-niweidio.
  • camdriniaeth corfforol - Mae hyn yn cynnwys unrhyw beth sy’n niweidio plentyn yn gorfforol. Efallai na fydd plant sy'n cael eu cam-drin yn gorfforol yn gwneud yn dda yn yr ysgol a gallant ddatblygu problemau cyffuriau ac alcohol. Gallant hefyd ddioddef problemau iechyd meddwl.
  • trais yn y cartref - Mae’n cynnwys camdriniaeth corfforol, rhywiol, emosiynol ac ariannol. Mae plant sy'n profi camdriniaeth domestig yn fwy tebygol o fod yn rhan o berthynas cam-drinol fel oedolyn.
  • esgeulustod - Methiant cyson i gwrdd ag anghenion plentyn. Mae plant sy'n profi esgeulustod yn fwy tebygol o gymryd rhan mewn trosedd, a dioddef o broblemau alcohol neu gyffuriau.
  • profi ysgariad neu deulu yn chwalu - Gall hyn fod yn drawmatig i blant ifanc. Mae un rhiant yn debygol o symud allan o gartref y teulu a bydd plant yn ymwybodol o deimladau drwg rhwng oedolion. Weithiau bydd plant ifanc yn teimlo mai nhw sydd ar fai am berthynas eu rhieni yn chwalu, sy'n gallu achosi problemau yn y tymor hir sy’n gallu effeithio ar hyder a hunan-barch plant.
  • galar - Bydd colli aelodau o’r teulu yn cael effaith mawr am blant. Gall plant sy'n colli pobl sy’n agos iddynt gael nifer o adweithiau gan gynnwys diffyg cwsg a chanolbwyntio a cholli archwaeth neu gymhelliant.
  • byw gydag aelod o'r teulu sy'n gaeth i alcohol neu sylweddau eraill - Gall menywod sy'n camddefnyddio alcohol neu sylweddau yn ystod beichiogrwydd effeithio ar ddatblygiad iach ymennydd y plentyn.

Darllen pellach:

Rhaglen ACEau yr Heddlu a Phartneriaid

http://www.aces.me.uk/

Key Concepts: Toxic Stress

https://bit.ly/2zahmAK

Helping children to develop a schema

Cefnogi plant i ddatblygu sgema

Two youn children playing with water

Schemas

Piaget believed that children learnt best by discovering things for themselves, learning through experience and developing what he referred to as 'schemas' to make sense of the world around them. Schemas are play patterns that are repeated when children play. Schemas show the child's ability to concentrate during an activity, for example, a child enjoys playing in the home corner filling bags, putting things in cupboards, dressing up, putting dolls into prams.

The pathways within the brain develop quicker when connections are supported and schemas provide a way of supporting children and extending their learning. The adult's role is to follow the child's interest in order to help the child to develop their knowledge and extend their interest. In order to help children develop schema, practitioners need to create learning environments full of resources and materials, and that support the development of concepts, by engaging with children effectively in order to structure and extend their learning.

When practitioners observe behavioural patterns that are repeated in the play of young children, they can use the information to note the concepts that children are following. Practitioners need to understand and engage with the concepts that are of interest to children in order to support their development and their learning effectively. Children should be observed over a period of time in order to collect information about any dominant schemas. As part of the process of collecting information, it is also important to speak to parents/carers in order to discover whether the behaviour is repeated outside the setting. By identifying schemas, practitioners can plan in ways that will be of most interest to the child, thus enriching the continuous provision with 'appropriate' resources, in order to provide an environment where schemas can be appreciated and can flourish.

The most common schemas are as follows:

Schema Possible behaviour
Transporting Moving themselves from one location to another, for example, on toys with wheels. Moving objects from one location to another in buckets, buggies, boxes or bags. Pushing another child in a pram. A significant interest in watching machines such as diggers moving objects or materials.
Enveloping Enjoys filling and emptying containers, for example, buckets and jugs. Enjoys hiding themselves under blankets, for example, and painting over pictures with one colour.
Trajectory An interest up and down or side to side movements. Enjoys placing small cars in a row. An interest in how objects and people move, for example, vertically, horizontally and through the air. Enjoys playing with water that flows from taps, through pipes etc.
Rotational An interest in round objects and objects that turn and spin such as washing machines and wheels. Enjoys being spun around. Making marks that include circles and spirals.
Positional Placing toys such as small cars in rows and likes to arrange objects according to size, colour etc. Likes to stand at the front or at the back of the line.
Transforming Exploring what happens when different substances are mixed together, for example, adding sand to the water pit, or adding colour to water. Transforming themselves by dressing up.

Further reading:

What is a Schema?

https://bit.ly/2Yfd0YL

Schemas

https://bit.ly/2Z1K7fN

Sgemâu

Credai Piaget bod plant yn dysgu orau wrth ddarganfod pethau drostyn nhw eu hunain ‘dysgu trwy brofiad’ ac yn datblygu’r hyn a alwai’n ‘sgemâu’ (schemas) i wneud synnwyr o’r byd o’u cwmpas. Sgemâu yw patrymau chwarae sy’n cael eu hailadrodd mewn chwarae plant. Mae sgemâu yn dangos canolbwyntio’r plentyn mewn gweithgaredd, er enghraifft, gall plentyn fwynhau chwarae yn y gornel gartref gan lenwi bagiau, rhoi pethau mewn cypyrddau, gwisgo i fyny, llwytho pramiau gyda doliau.

Mae llwybrau'r ymennydd yn datblygu'n gyflymach pan mae cysylltiadau yn cael eu cefnogi ac mae sgemâu yn ffordd o gefnogi plant ac ymestyn eu dysgu. Rôl yr oedolyn yw cyd-fynd â diddordeb y plentyn er mwyn cefnogi’r plentyn i ddatblygu ei wybodaeth ac ymestyn ei ddiddordeb. Er mwyn helpu plant i ddatblygu sgema, mae angen i ymarferwyr greu amgylcheddau dysgu sy'n llawn adnoddau a deunyddiau, ac sy'n cefnogi datblygu cysyniadau, trwy ymgysylltu â phlant yn effeithiol er mwyn sgaffaldio ac ymestyn eu dysgu.

Pan fydd ymarferwyr yn arsylwi ar batrymau ymddygiad sy’n cael eu hailadrodd mewn chwarae plant ifanc, gallant ddefnyddio'r wybodaeth i nodi’r cysyniadau mae plant yn dilyn. Mae angen i ymarferwyr ddeall ac ymgysylltu â'r cysyniadau y mae gan blant ddiddordeb ynddynt er mwyn cefnogi eu datblygiad a'u dysgu yn effeithiol. Bydd angen arsylwi plant dros gyfnod o amser er mwyn casglu gwybodaeth am unrhyw sgemâu dominyddol. Fel rhan o’r broses o gasglu gwybodaeth mae hefyd yn bwysig i siarad â rhieni/gofalwyr i ddarganfod os yw’r ymddygiad yn cael ei ailadrodd tu allan i'r lleoliad? Drwy nodi sgemâu gall ymarferwyr gynllunio mewn ffyrdd sydd o’r diddordeb mwyaf i’r plentyn gan gyfoethogi’r ddarpariaeth barhaol gydag adnoddau 'priodol', er mwyn darparu amgylchedd lle mae sgemâu yn cael eu gwerthfawrogi ac yn gallu ffynnu.

Dyma rhai o’r sgemâu mwyaf cyffredin:

Sgema Ymddygiad posib
Cludo (Transporting) Symud eu hunain o un lle i le arall, er enghraifft ar deganau ag olwynion. Symud gwrthrychau o un lle i le arall mewn bwcedi, bygis, bocsys neu fagiau. Gwthio plentyn arall mewn pram. Diddordeb mawr mewn gwylio peiriannau megis cloddwyr (diggers) yn symud gwrthrychau neu ddeunyddiau.
Amgylchynu (Enveloping) Mwynhau llenwi a gwagio cynwysyddion, er enghraifft, bwcedi a jygiau. Mwynhau cuddio eu hunain o dan flanced efallai a peintio dros luniau ag un lliw.
Tafl-lwybr (Trajectory) Diddordeb mewn symudiadau i fyny ac i lawr neu ochr i ochr. Mwynhau gosod ceir bach mewn llinell. Diddordeb mewn sut mae gwrthrychau a phobl yn symud, er enghraifft, yn fertigol, yn llorweddol a drwy'r awyr. Mwynhau chwarae â dŵr sy’n llifo o dapiau, trwy bibellau ac ati.
Cylchdroad (Rotational) Diddordeb mewn gwrthrychau crwn a rhai sy’n troi a throelli megis peiriannau golchi ac olwynion. Yn mwynhau cael eu troi o gwmpas. Gwneud marciau sy'n cynnwys cylchoedd a throellau.
Lleoliadol (Positional) Rhoi teganau fel ceir bach mewn rhesi ac yn hoffi trefnu gwrthrychau yn ôl maint, lliw ac ati. Hoffi sefyll y tu blaen neu ar gefn y linell.
Trawsnewid (Transforming) Archwilio beth sy'n digwydd pan mae gwahanol sylweddau'n cael eu cymysgu â'i gilydd er enghraifft, ychwanegu tywod i’r cafn dŵr, neu ychwanegu lliw at ddŵr. Trawsnewid eu hunain trwy wisgo i fyny.

Darllen pellach:

What is a Schema?

https://bit.ly/2Yfd0YL

Schemas

https://bit.ly/2Z1K7fN

Promoting and supporting a bilingual environment that supports play, learning, growth and development

Hybu a chefnogi amgylchedd dwyieithog sy’n cefnogi chwarae, dysgu, twf a datblygiad

Excited children in the classroom

It is important to provide positive and safe environments that develop and support play, learning, growth and development in order to support children's growth and development. A positive environment will promote children's development, therefore furniture, resources and activities that are suitable for their age and development stage should be provided. It is important to make use of the outdoor area, as well as the indoor area. By taking part in play activities in the indoor or outdoor area, children socialise with adults and other children in a fun way.

The responsibility of the adult when planning safe and stimulating environments is to consider the needs of all children, not only their stages of development and individual interests, but also any cultural, emotional and social needs they have. The environment and specific activities need to be planned in order to include all children and ensure that everyone is fully involved in the activities. This means that activities need to be adapted to meet specific needs, such as disability or language needs.

Practitioners should encourage confidence and independence by providing equipment and resources that are suitable for children's stage of development and are accessible to them. Planning is required in order to ensure that all children can access all resources available. It is important to take children's individual needs into account, as there may be a big difference between the development stages of children of the same age. The book area, and displays and activities that encourage children to investigate and discuss will support their development of knowledge and understanding of the world, as well as mathematical concepts, including time and shape.

Bilingual environments

Children in Welsh medium early years settings acquire new languages by using the language immersion method, which is a way of introducing a second language. Children are immersed in language when they are educated in a language that is different to the home language as they play and interact, and take part in activities. This means that children are surrounded by the Welsh language and acquire the language in a natural way without them realising.

The role of the practitioner

Practitioners have a very important role to play in helping children to acquire new language. Children's linguistic development depends on hearing the Welsh language regularly during each activity. Practitioners need to join in with children's activities in order to offer them linguistic clues.

In order to acquire the new language, children must hear the practitioners:

  • suggest vocabulary and pronounce words correctly and clearly
  • repeating vocabulary and using language patterns regularly, e.g. circle time, when washing hands, going home time
  • giving the child time to process what they have heard and ensure that they have understood
  • offering linguistic ideas
  • pointing to objects and saying the word
  • gesturing to show the meaning of words/sentences
  • introducing simple songs and rhymes and singing them over and over
  • rereading books over and over pointing to the story with their finger
  • creating opportunities for children to practice the words they have learnt e.g. as part of role play activities
  • praising children immediately when they achieve something, e.g. saying the Welsh word for the first time.

In order for children to be surrounded by the language, practitioners need to speak Welsh at all times. Practitioners are linguistic role models for children, which means that they need to speak Welsh with the other members of staff. Practitioners should support and encourage staff, students, volunteers or professionals whose first language is not Welsh, and make them feel comfortable using the language without being judged. If the adults at the setting do not speak Welsh regularly, children will not hear practical examples of the language being used. It is important that practitioners do not use the 'sandwich method' of introducing the Welsh language, by saying the word/information in a Welsh-English-Welsh format, e.g. ‘diod-drink-diod’. By becoming familiar with this method, children will come to understand that they do not need to take notice of the new language and will concentrate on the language that they already know.

By planning different activities and themes, children can develop their knowledge and understanding of Wales. Practitioners need to provide opportunities for children to learn about their local area and other areas in Wales, e.g. beaches, rivers and mountains. This will help children to feel that they belong to their local community and to Wales and will develop their understanding of the country's unique cultural identity. Practitioners should work as a team and should help each other when researching themes and activities that promote understanding of Welsh culture.

In order for the parents/carers to understand and feel comfortable about the language immersion method, it is essential that practitioners establish their methods of working in partnership with them. If parents/carers are aware of the setting's language policy and understand the immersion method, they are more likely to support the setting in its attempts to help their child acquire the Welsh language.

Practitioners can help families/carers by sharing information about their child's development as they acquire the language in order to show that their child is making progress with regard to developing the language. By sharing information about ways to help their children to acquire the language, families/carers will feel that they are being included and this will have a positive effect on their children's language development. Practitioners can share information about books, websites or apps that families can use at home with their children, or they can share key vocabulary for them to use. For example, the setting may be following 'the farm' theme, so practitioners could share a sheet with the names of farm animals on it.

Mae darparu amgylcheddau cadarnhaol a ddiogel sy’n meithrin ac yn cefnogi chwarae, dysgu, twf a datblygiad yn bwysig er mwyn helpu plant i dyfu a datblygu. Bydd amgylchedd cadarnhaol yn hyrwyddo datblygiad plant, felly mae angen darparu dodrefn, adnoddau a gweithgareddau sy’n addas ar gyfer eu hoed a cam ddatblygiad. Mae’n bwysig defnyddio’r ardal tu allan, yn ogystal â’r ardal tu mewn. Drwy gymryd rhan mewn gweithgareddau chwarae yn yr ardal dan do neu du allan, bydd plant yn cymdeithasu gydag oedolion a phlant eraill mewn ffordd hwyliog.

Cyfrifoldeb yr oedolyn wrth gynllunio amgylcheddau diogel ac ysgogol yw ystyried anghenion pob plentyn, nid dim ond eu cam datblygiad a'u diddordebau unigol, ond hefyd unrhyw anghenion diwylliannol, emosiynol a chymdeithasol sydd ganddynt. Mae angen cynllunio’r amgylchedd a gweithgareddau penodol er mwyn cynnwys pob plentyn a sicrhau bod pawb yn cymryd rhan lawn yn y gweithgareddau. Golyga hyn fod angen addasu gweithgareddau i ddiwallu anghenion penodol megis anghenion iaith neu anabledd.

Dylai ymarferwyr hybu hyder ac annibyniaeth plant drwy ddarparu offer ac adnoddau sy’n addas ar gyfer eu cam datblygiad, ac sy’n gyraeddadwy iddynt. Mae angen cynllunio er mwyn sicrhau bod pob plentyn yn gallu cael mynediad at yr holl adnoddau sydd ar gael. Mae’n bwysig ystyried anghenion unigol y plant, gan gall fod gwahaniaeth mawr rhwng cam ddatblygiad plant yr un oed. Bydd yr ardal lyfrau, arddangosfeydd a gweithgareddau sy’n annog i blant ymchwilio a thrafod yn eu cefnogi i ddatblygu eu gwybodaeth a dealltwriaeth o’r byd, a chysyniadau mathemategol gan gynnwys amser a siâp.

Amgylcheddau dwyieithog

Mae plant mewn lleoliadau cyfrwng Cymraeg yn y blynyddoedd cynnar yn caffael ieithoedd newydd drwy’r dull trochi iaith, sef ffordd o gyflwyno ail iaith. Bydd plant yn cael eu trochi mewn iaith pan fyddent yn derbyn eu haddysg mewn iaith sy’n wahanol i iaith y cartref wrth iddynt chwarae a rhyngweithio, a chymryd rhan mewn gweithgareddau. Golyga hyn bod plant yn cael eu hamgylchynu gan y Gymraeg gan gaffael yr iaith mewn ffordd naturiol heb iddynt sylweddoli.

Rôl yr ymarferydd

Mae gan ymarferwyr rôl bwysig iawn wrth gefnogi plant i gaffael iaith newydd. Mae datblygiad ieithyddol plant yn dibynnu ar glywed y Gymraeg yn gyson ym mhob gweithgaredd. Mae angen i ymarferwyr ymuno gyda gweithgareddau’r plant er mwyn cynnig cliwiau ieithyddol iddynt.

Er mwyn caffael yr iaith newydd, rhaid i’r plant glywed ymarferwyr yn:

  • awgrymu geirfa ac ynganu geiriau’n gywir ac yn glir
  • ailadrodd geirfa a defnyddio patrymau iaith yn gyson, e.e. amser cylch, amser golchi dwylo, amser mynd adref
  • rhoi amser i’r plentyn brosesu'r hyn mae’n ei glywed a sicrhau ei fod wedi deall
  • cynnig syniadau ieithyddol
  • pwyntio at wrthrych wrth ddweud y gair
  • ystumio i ddangos ystyr geiriau/brawddegau
  • cyflwyno caneuon a rhigymau syml a’u hail ganu drosodd a throsodd
  • ailddarllen llyfrau drosodd a throsodd gan arwain y stori â bys
  • creu cyfleoedd i blant ymarfer y geiriau maent wedi eu dysgu, e.e. wrth chwarae rôl
  • canmol y plant yn syth ar ôl iddynt gyflawni rhywbeth, e.e. dweud gair Cymraeg am y tro cyntaf.

Er mwyn i blant gael eu hamgylchynu gan yr iaith, mae angen i ymarferwyr siarad Cymraeg drwy’r amser. Mae ymarferwyr yn fodel rôl ieithyddol i blant, sy’n golygu bod angen iddynt siarad Cymraeg gyda’r staff eraill. Dylai ymarferwyr gefnogi ac annog staff, myfyrwyr, gwirfoddolwyr neu bobl broffesiynol nad ydyn nhw’n siarad Cymraeg fel eu hiaith gyntaf gan wneud iddynt deimlo’n gyfforddus i ddefnyddio’r iaith heb gael eu barnu. Os nad yw’r oedolion yn y lleoliad yn siarad Cymraeg yn gyson, ni fydd plant yn clywed enghreifftiau ymarferol o’r iaith yn cael ei defnyddio. Mae’n bwysig nad yw ymarferwyr yn defnyddio’r ‘dull brechdan’ o gyflwyno’r Gymraeg, sef dweud y gair/gwybodaeth mewn Cymraeg-Saesneg-Cymraeg, e.e. ‘diod-drink-diod’. Drwy arfer gyda’r dull hwn, bydd plant yn dod i ddeall nad oes angen iddynt gymryd sylw o’r iaith newydd ac yn canolbwyntio ar yr iaith maent yn ei wybod yn barod.

Drwy gynllunio gwahanol weithgareddau a themâu, gall plant ddatblygu eu gwybodaeth a dealltwriaeth o Gymru. Mae angen i ymarferwyr ddarparu cyfleoedd i blant ddysgu am eu hardal leol ac ardaloedd eraill yng Nghymru, e.e. traethau, afonydd a mynyddoedd. Bydd hyn yn cefnogi plant i deimlo eu bod yn perthyn i’w cymuned leol a Chymru ac yn datblygu dealltwriaeth am hunaniaeth ddiwylliannol unigryw'r wlad. Dylai ymarferwyr gydweithio fel tîm a chefnogi ei gilydd wrth iddynt ymchwilio i themâu a gweithgareddau sy’n hyrwyddo dealltwriaeth o ddiwylliant Cymru.

Er mwyn i rieni/gofalwyr ddeall a theimlo’n gyfforddus am y dull trochi iaith, mae’n hanfodol bod ymarferwyr yn gwreiddio dulliau gweithredu mewn partneriaeth â nhw. Os bydd rhieni/gofalwyr yn ymwybodol o bolisi iaith y lleoliad ac yn deall y dull trochi byddan nhw’n fwy tebygol o gefnogi’r lleoliad wrth iddynt gefnogi eu plentyn i gaffael yr iaith Gymraeg.

Gall ymarferwyr gefnogi teuluoedd/gofalwyr drwy rannu gwybodaeth am ddatblygiad eu plentyn wrth iddynt gaffael yr iaith er mwyn dangos bod eu plentyn yn gwneud cynnydd wrth ddatblygu’r iaith. Drwy rannu gwybodaeth am ffyrdd i gefnogi eu plant i gaffael yr iaith, bydd teuluoedd/gofalwyr yn teimlo fel eu bod yn cael eu cynnwys a chael effaith bositif ar ddatblygiad iaith eu plant. Gall ymarferwyr rannu gwybodaeth am lyfrau, gwefannau neu apiau y gall teuluoedd eu defnyddio gartref gyda’u plant, neu rannu geirfa allweddol iddynt eu defnyddio. Er enghraifft, efallai bod y lleoliad yn dilyn themâu ‘y fferm’, felly gall ymarferwyr rannu taflen gydag enwau anifeiliaid y fferm arno.